Dr. Hussein Sharara
Abstract
This research explores the principles of perspective as an art form, examining its various interpretations in different civilizations from philosophical, visual, and artistic perspectives. The study delves into the multifaceted nature of perspective, encompassing religious, symbolic, and geometric aspects. With an introduction, three sections, and a conclusion, the research investigates the impact of modernism on perspective and its evolution from a realistic representation to a symbolic expression. Furthermore, the influences of light and shadow are examined, along with their effects on both the tangible and abstract aspects of perspective. The research highlights the Muslim artist's ability to imbue Persian miniatures with philosophical and spiritual dimensions, thereby achieving a symbolic realm. Ultimately, the study concludes that profound concepts within painting serve as the artist's guiding principles in creating cognitive and cultural dimensions, enabling the conveyance of spiritual messages through the incorporation of a symbolic, rather than solely physical, third dimension.
Keywords: Perspective, Visual Arts, Light and Shadow, Spiritual Perspective, Modernism
The science of dimensions is a world in itself, rooted in the structure of the universe. It is an integral part of a comprehensive mathematical system that gives objects their scientific and aesthetic concepts. It contributes to embodying several elements, such as light, shadow, and an appropriate and suitable visual mechanism for the proportions of this science.
Artists, architects, and sculptors have shown great interest in the harmony, symmetry, agility, and beauty of tangible forms of life. They have sought the most effective means and methods to re-embodiment the richness and diversity of the real world's forms. They turned to the science of optics and mathematics, making the science of proportion and perspective the field of human cognitive activity. The horizontal and spatial perspective, light, shadow, brightness, proportions, the golden ratio, and the design and composition of the artwork became the subject of discussion and exploration for these artists.
However, the difference between painting and science is that painting reflects visible colors and shapes of the world, while science delves into the "essence of matter," exposing the qualities of form and focusing its attention on the quantitative nature of things, as engineering does.
Nature is the source of shape, color, and inspiration in art, and the form represents the appearance of the artwork. The ability to express oneself is considered one of the most important characteristics of humans. Due to the natural inclination deeply rooted in the human formation and shared by all people, every individual has the readiness to convey the expressions of others. This readiness is considered one of the factors that contributed to the formation of human societies, and artistic activity has become a general, personal, social, and spiritual phenomenon. Thus, the unified aesthetic line in artistic creativity, representing the duality of existence (shadow and light), became the central focus in the perception of aesthetic taste. It often fills the observer with the pleasure of recognizing and discovering the symbolism of the essence of perspective through the interplay of shadow and light, black and white, mass and void, whiteness and blackness, in order to create aesthetic balance within the small unit (artistic piece) as an extension of the overall unity (the universe).
The importance of this research lies in its exploration of the developments in the field of perspective and the significance of its transformation from realistic to abstract representation. It examines these transformations through the perspectives of thinkers and artists who have studied this subject, particularly their critical views on modernity and its impact on the art of painting. Additionally, the research emphasizes the significance of discussing the features of Islamic arts, specifically the art of miniatures, and how it influenced modern painting, giving it a philosophical and symbolic dimension.
The research aims to study the transformations that have occurred in the art of painting and the science of perspective, starting from classical approaches and extending to modernity. It examines how this science has deviated from its traditional path, which expressed the methods of civilizations and their approaches to the art of painting. Furthermore, the research seeks to envision the future of this art form by incorporating spiritual and conceptual elements that elevate it to the status of a philosophical art, rather than merely a medium for replicating reality.
The research addresses the problem of design transformations in the science of perspective in light of modernity and abstract art. It attempts to answer the question of whether the rules of perspective, rooted in classical principles, still hold relevance in artistic works, especially concerning the portrayal of elements through techniques of light, shadow, and color. Has perspective evolved into a deeper and more spiritually connected form of art, known as spiritual perspective? Moreover, what is the relationship between the science of perspective and art? Should an artist strive to faithfully depict a scene based on its actual dimensions and what the eye perceives, or should they adhere to the principles of spiritual philosophy based on the impression they derive from the scene?
Modernity, with its liberation from the constraints of classical schools, has influenced the rules of painting and the portrayal of subjects through perspective, light, and shadow techniques. However, this change has been influenced by previous schools that focused on emphasizing the depth of objects through abstraction from their realistic form, delving into their inner essence to give them deeper meaning and significance. Spiritual perspective and Arabesque decoration, which Muslim artists employed, utilizing abstraction and flattening rather than realistic representation, are considered factors that inspired contemporary artists to explore new and innovative approaches in their artistic endeavors. These influences have led artists of the abstract school to produce works with a philosophical and spiritual character, surpassing mere replication of reality.
1. The Aesthetic Values of Light and Shadow Techniques in Artworks
1.1 The Concept of Light
Light is a mixture of electromagnetic and electrical wave (Figure 1). "The light that can be seen by the human eye is composed of electromagnetic wave that surrounds us."[1] It is a highly variable phenomenon, constantly changing in its intensity and angle of incidence. Therefore, it was difficult to represent it as a fixed, defined entity like a line. Hence, the process of shading was introduced, and light came to be represented by a gradient between bright white and deep black. Light can be obtained from natural sources, such as in architecture and sculpture, where light is reflected on protruding parts while the inner parts acquire shadows. This changes throughout the day and varies depending on the weather. Light can be divided into two categories: direct light, originating from the sun, stars, lamps, and candles, which are self-illuminating sources, and indirect light, originating from the moon and planets, which are objects that reflect sunlight. As mentioned in the Quran, "It is He who made the sun a shining light and the moon a derived light."[2] Thus, brightness is emitted from the source, while light is derived from objects that reflect it.
1.2 The Concept of Shadow and Light
Shadow and light are fundamental elements in revealing objects with cavities or protrusions. Without them, shapes around us would not be clear, and the world would become transparent like air, devoid of any visible trace. They have a profound impact on the beauty and form of an object when their distribution on the surfaces is considered systematic. Shadow informs the eye about the low areas, while light informs about the high areas. It is mentioned in the Quran, "Have you not considered how your Lord extends the shade? And if He willed, He could have made it stationary. Then We made the sun for it an indication." [3]Objects do not appear to the eye as defined lines, but rather take on a three-dimensional appearance through the variation and contrast of shadow and light on their surfaces. Undoubtedly, the difference in the degree of shadow arises because light does not uniformly fall on all parts of an object, and objects do not reflect light with the same intensity due to their inherent nature. The sense of depth, the third dimension that separates the background from the object to be displayed in the image, is created by shading (Figure 2).
1.3 How Shadows Are Formed and Their Movement Style
The formation of a shadow is the result of the scattering of light in straight lines. The term "shadow" refers to the blocking of light in a certain area by the presence of an opaque barrier that intercepts the path of visible light waves coming from a light source in one direction. When any object is exposed to sunlight or natural light, the side directly facing the sun is illuminated, while the other side of the object, which is not facing the sun, falls into shadow. For example, if any geometric object is placed in the sunlight, the half exposed to the sun will be illuminated, while the other half will be in shadow, which is called the true shadow, as it is cast by the object itself. We then find that this shaded side of the geometric object casts a shadow on the ground or any other surface or object, known as the cast shadow or the apparent shadow (Figure 3).
1.4 Values of Shadow and Light
The term "values" refers to the gradation of colors from dark to light and the gradation of shadow and light between black and white.” Values range from black to white, and colors appear bright and distinct when they are close to the eye. They appear grayish or faded as they move away from the viewer's eye.”[4]
As for the movement style of shadows in general, it can be observed by observing the shadow of an object or a sundial exposed to sunlight. It can be seen that when the sun rises in the morning from the east until noon, the shadows of objects fall to the west. When the sun moves from the middle of the sky towards the western side, the shadows of objects fall to the eastern side.
It is also observed that the lengths of shadows are the longest at sunrise and then gradually decrease as the sun rises higher in the sky until it reaches the zenith at noon. In this case, the shadows of objects, regardless of their differences, are minimal. After the sun moves towards the west, the shadows of objects start to increase again until they reach their maximum length at sunset (Figure 4).
There is a close relationship between the angles of the sun's elevation in the sky and the length of shadows cast on the ground or different surfaces. The lower the angle of the sun's elevation, the greater the lengths of the cast shadows, which occurs at sunrise or sunset. The higher the angle of the sun's elevation, the shorter the shadows cast on the ground. The shortest shadows occur at noon. Therefore, the relationship between the sun, shadows, and their lengths is interdependent. As one increases, the other decreases.
1.5 Applications of Shadows and Light in Painting
The entire artistic work is based on the mastery of the techniques of lighting and shading, as they play the role of coloring and give vitality and radiance to objects. They also enable the artist to express the characteristics of objects in terms of size and depth. "A broad line of a sphere appears as a mere paper circle, but with appropriate shading, it will appear spherical in shape. This is the perspective of light and shadow."[5] The best way to highlight elements is perhaps the side that allows us to see the shadows clearly and emphasize the direction of the light source, creating areas of illumination and darkness in one direction. It involves unifying the direction of light on all elements in the painting based on the principles of perspective and dimensions. "This is evident in the works of the Greek artist Apollodorus, known as the maker of shadows, who had a profound understanding of shadows and focused on embodying figures in his paintings according to the natural direction at that time."[6]
(As scientific and artistic life gradually evolved in Europe, especially in Italy, and the seeds of the Renaissance began to blossom among European communities, these movements found their way through supporting art families such as the "Medici" family in Florence, the "Sforza" family in Milan, and the Popes in Rome. Venice emerged as an unparalleled artistic capital in the 16th century, and the artistic movement developed and flourished in the hands of the three artists, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael” [7].
This period was known as the Renaissance era and it radically changed the history of art. Artists benefited immensely from the pioneers who studied perspective scientifically, explored the effects of light and shadows, and added to that the beautiful anatomical paintings presented by da Vinci and others. At that time, Florentine art had taken significant steps towards a clear beginning of redefining the concepts of Greek realistic art. Artists broke away from traditions and artistic conventions, conducting in-depth studies on the science of perspective and the impact of shadows and light in rendering shapes.
2. The applications of perspective and its development in ancient civilizations.
2.1 Perspective and the Science of Dimensions
The art in the West has relied on linear perspective since the Classical Greek era, depicting what the eye visually perceives. There is an old saying that "seeing leads to believing," and the word "perspective" originates from the Latin word "Perspectiva," which means "seeing through." [8]In Chinese art, artists relied on natural perspective, while Arab and Muslim artists relied on spiritual perspective in their works.
The vanishing point is the key to modern perspective art. It is not merely a conceptual idea but a visual phenomenon. Some contemporary scholars interested in perspective have inferred from their observations of the meeting point of the side edges in buildings, known as the vanishing point (Figure 5).
In the past, before the emergence of the science of perspective, artists focused on highlighting the form or directing light on objects, regardless of the realism of the scene. The emphasis was on portraying the spiritual and dynamic impression through the size, movement, and interaction of objects.” [9]
2.2 Perspective in Greek Art
Greek artists relied on the principles of linear perspective, which involved portraying depth above a flat surface by depicting two dimensions and providing a sense of movement within the image's space. The historian Pliny the Younger presented the roles of prominent Greek painters in inventing this perspective. Among these painters were Apollo Dorus, Zeuxis, and Parrhesias. Meanwhile, Ptolemy and Vitruvius, renowned engineers in the Roman era, attempted to explain the laws of visual perspective in the Classical period. However, it was the scholars and architects of the Renaissance, who inherited ancient traditions, that laid the scientific foundations of perspective, which still exist today. Artists like Brunelleschi, Giotto, Alberti, and others were pioneers of linear perspective, which became one of the fundamental principles of Western art.
(Linear perspective relies on a fundamental principle: the viewer stands before a line located at eye level, known as the horizon line, and objects, regardless of their position, are connected by rays converging at a vanishing point located on the horizon line. This allows linear perspective to represent forms that resemble their real-life positions when viewed from a specific point) [10].
Therefore, linear perspective is a positional law that imposes itself on the artist. In fact, this law becomes the basis for evaluating the success of their work, regardless of the strength of expression, coloring, and narration. Rubens, for example, portrayed his famous painting "The Feast at Cana" following this law.
This law had long restricted the freedom of artists, leading contemporary artists to revolt against it vigorously. Cézanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin were among the first to resist the subjugation of art to this law, influenced by Japanese art, Egyptian art, and Oceanian arts. As for Matisse, Paul Klee, Picasso, and others, they became even more opposed to the concept of linear perspective after visiting Arab countries and delving into the secrets of the spiritual, non-rational Arab perspective.
2.3 Perspective in Ancient Egypt Art
Pharaonic artists defined space through horizontal and vertical lines, which led to the development of what is known as the architectural approach in visual art. This is clearly manifested in the shape of the pyramids. Egyptian artists in mural or color painting used extended forms on flat surfaces, resulting in an organized and intriguing arrangement of the painting space that extends in two dimensions. However, when extended in three dimensions, it remains marked by the rigidity associated with the use of centrally aligned elements at right angles. They depicted the human body in a confrontational manner, with a side view rather than a three-dimensional representation, resulting in a strong attachment to content and essence.
2.4 Perspective in the East: India and China
"The Eastern perspective, as exemplified by the Chinese, differs significantly from Western perspective. They created a painting technique that revealed a delicate sense of perspective in their paintings. Most likely, they were not familiar with the scientific secret of perspective, but they imitated what they saw." [11] This perspective also spread to Japan, where Japanese artists widely adopted it due to the cultural and traditional similarities between China and Japan.
Indian artists adopted some principles from the Chinese perspective but were more influenced by Western perspective due to the impact of European influences on India, facilitated by their geographic proximity. Indian artists took the horizon line as a basis from the West, but it was not placed in front of the viewer; instead, it remained behind. They still maintained a connection with the Chinese perspective, but instead of having a single vanishing point on the horizon line, they incorporated multiple vanishing points. In fact, the horizon line itself often appears multiple times in a single scene. Thus, in these perspectives, there is no assumption of stability in a single location, as in Western perspective. Instead, it is left to the artist's discretion to present forms from different angles and perspectives.
Confucianism emerged in China around 500 BCE and sought elevation through art, while the appearance of Buddhism in India and its transmission to China reaffirmed the sanctity of nature. Nature became the central theme in their art, characterized by a mystical, hazy, and majestic style. The practice of art was akin to worship, providing a euphoric connection with the creator.
2.5 Perspective in the Renaissance
During the Renaissance, a major scientific and artistic revolution began, spreading across Europe, starting from Italy, and influencing all human sciences of the time, especially those related to drawing and painting. This was due to the significant support provided by the Church to highlight the greatness of Christianity. The Church supported several artists in their research and works, which, in turn, had an impact on the science of perspective and dimensions.
Philosophers of the Renaissance considered mathematical investigation as an integral part of their theories, which were a blend of mathematics and natural philosophy known as "mixed sciences." This included the study of optics, which involved not only the behavior of vision and light but also the anatomy and functioning of the human eye. Initially, it was believed that vision caused an emission of activity from the eye's apertures, but later, it was discovered that it was a process of light reception in the eye. However, the theoretical aspect of physics was ignored, and the focus was on geometry, describing how to represent three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface.”[12]
The transition towards a more natural scientific approach began in the late 13th century in the works of the artist Giotto. In his painting "Joachim comes to the shepherds," the human and animal proportions appeared natural, but the landscapes did not, indicating that the rules of perspective were not yet applied in painting. As science progressed during the Renaissance, the concept of mental perception came into play.
Regardless of whether the concept of linear perspective originated from the artist's direct sensory impressions or through geometric variations, what remains constant is that the correct foundations of perspective were established during the Renaissance. Despite numerous improvements, developments, and simplifications of perspective theories over the ages, they have maintained their objectives and functions throughout history.”[13]
The concept of art and viewing an artwork relies on other methods beyond the eyes and the reflection of light. The most crucial part is the brain, without which art would not exist. While art scholars honed their expertise over the ages, scientists expanded their research in anatomical sciences related to brain functions. Neuroscientists made exciting progress in understanding brain neurons and functions, but initially, these researches did not catch the attention of art experts, philosophers, and historians. Over time, albeit slowly, we managed to understand the relationship between art and the neuroscientific functions because some sciences began to explain their connections.”[14]
Here, artists began to focus on what the eye perceives through the process of cognition that occurs in the human brain for sensory objects and how to apply it in the science of perspective within the artwork.
2.6 Shadows and Light in the Works of Artists
Giotto was the last artist of the Middle Ages and one of the first artists of the Renaissance era. He was a contributor to liberating European art from the dominance of Byzantine art traditions. He was also the first to make serious attempts at applying the third dimension. His works are characterized by embodiment and the stability of figures on the ground, as well as the strong masses of the figures. He also depicted wide garments with folds that directed downward, which added solidity to his work (Figure 6)[15].”
The quality of representing real space in painting emerged during the Renaissance, and the correct mathematical perspective was not developed by any painter but by Filippo Brunelleschi, who initially worked as a goldsmith. He is credited with two works that demonstrate proper perspective.”[16]
A painter, extraordinary genius, sculptor, musician, writer, and brilliant engineer, Leonardo excelled in sciences, mathematics, and physics, surpassing his teachers. Among his important works are "The Last Supper" and the "Mona Lisa" (also known as "La Gioconda") from 1506, considered the pinnacle of his artistic portrayal, demonstrating delicate and transparent shading (Figure 8)[17]. He focused on the subject matter in his works, as he stated, "In historical pictures, never introduce ornaments on the lines that form the subject matter of the artwork; otherwise, we will make backgrounds and corners dominate the essential elements of the characters that should occupy the positions of interest in the light" [18].
A creative Dutch artist who was influenced by the style of Peter Paul Rubens, which relied on the interplay of light and dark in paintings. In most of his works, Rembrandt skillfully handled light in relation to shadows and the movements of the figures. Light played a brilliant role in creating a sense of unity throughout his works. “ [19]
Vermeer was born in Delft, Netherlands, and remained there throughout his life. He belonged to the Delft School of arts. "He was not recognized as a great painter until the 19th century, although he had a profound influence on some painters such as Pissarro and Francois Bonvin. Not much is known about Vermeer's life, who lived for forty-three years, during which he married and had ten children. He faced financial difficulties towards the end of his life. Some of his paintings include "The Girl with a Pearl Earring," "View of Delft," and "The Music Lesson" (Figure 8)." [20]
View of Delft" is considered one of the finest paintings produced in Europe in the 17th century. Vermeer showed a great interest in the stillness of objects and employed his talent in dealing with light effects and capturing details and material structures.
Cézanne was an Impressionist artist who initially studied law at the College of Bourbon but later switched to studying art at the Swiss Academy. There, he became acquainted with influential artists such as Monet, Manet, Renoir, and others. His early works were influenced by Romanticism, then he adopted Impressionism. However, after facing severe criticism of his Impressionist works, he combined Impressionism with some classical techniques, abandoning some of the approaches used by Impressionists to depict the third dimension. He also departed from faithfully imitating nature and began searching for innovative solutions to achieve his goals. In the end, he saw geometric shapes in the natural elements he painted, liberating them from their natural forms. He later filled these spaces with areas of color (Figure 9).
Through the new techniques he experimented with in perspective and the way he depicted light and shadow in his paintings, Cézanne is considered the father of modern art. His style served as a transitional phase leading to a significant change in the history of modern art. His experiments in painting moved from the school that emerged in the late 19th century to the modern abstract school that formed in the 20th century.
3. The Spiritual Perspective in Islamic Art and the Ascendant Movement
3.1 The Spiritual Perspective in Arab Art
The spiritual perspective appears to be absolute in Arab calligraphy. In geometric formations, realistic shapes become purely abstract when they are transformed into intersecting geometric shapes with beautiful harmony. These shapes become completely detached from their meanings and proportions, with no room for beginnings or endings, projections, or radiations.
Although the Arab art was initially influenced by pre-Islamic arts, Arab artists continued to maintain their distinctive character even after the advent of Islam. This was manifested in the way they portrayed people and forms, according to a special perspective called "the spiritual perspective." The science of perspective evolved and became associated with mathematics. It became a fundamental principle applied in drawing and painting. While it remains a system for accurately representing reality, its major flaw lies in its control over the artist and his perception of things. This led to its rejection in the modern era, where artists rushed to challenge and deviate from it. The Impressionists were among the first to violate the rules of this science, liberating art from its constraints. Undoubtedly, these artists were influenced by Eastern arts. Some later artists completely shifted away from the visual perspective and applied the Islamic perspective, which is based on non-mathematical and non-optical principles, but rather on ascending spiritual principles.” [21] (Figure 12).
3.2 The Concept of the Spiritual Perspective in Islamic Art
The first thing that becomes apparent when comparing the two perspectives is that the visual perspective is based on revealing the successive dimensions in the angle of vision, while the spiritual perspective defines the outlines of objects on a flat surface. It is interpreted as the representation of the elements and subjects. In it, all the formal characteristics of these objects are revealed.
Therefore, we say that the task of the Arab artist has always been to express the act of drawing itself, whereas the task of the Western artist has been to depict a scene itself. The Arab artist was concerned with not imitating God in His creation. He refrained from depicting the third dimension and expressing it because it signifies the vessel of the spiritual content of things. This content is linked to the ability of Allah Almighty, who breathes life into things. On the other hand, the Greek or Renaissance artists sought to express divine perfection through human perfection, and therefore, they resorted to mathematical rules that define the absolute principles of beauty and the optimal reality.
However, the spiritual perspective does not deny reality or neglect the role of the viewer. While the painter who applies the rules of the visual perspective seeks to present reality as captured by a mechanical lens, aiming to satisfy the viewer's visual habits, he depicts objects from an angle he chooses and imposes on the viewer. On the other hand, the spiritual painter takes the artistic elements from reality, such as the carpet, the table, the architectural frame, and the people, and draws them, then arranges them on a single surface to highlight their artistic beauty.
These independent, divided elements merge into the unity of the artwork due to the small size of the image in Islamic Arab art. We observe this in miniatures and in illuminations from different illustrative eras found in manuscripts. In the large-scale images that adorn the facades and walls of buildings, we see that the individual element has separated to become an independent painting.
Thus, in a flat painting, the view remains completely unrestricted by the rules of perspective and follows its deep path into the third dimension, through the defined angle of vision.
“The multiplicity and independence of elements in the subject matter make the artistic moment diverse with the multiplicity of these elements, and they vary in duration according to their artistic and compositional precision. On the other hand, we see that images based on visual perspective are defined by a single moment in time, and this moment is very fast because it is similar to a painter snapshot. Its beauty lies in the scientific visual perception. If the divine vision of humans, which governs the determination of spiritual perspective,”[22] has straight rays like the rays of the sun due to their inclusiveness and emission, then their reach to objects is not hindered by artificial and scientific barriers as is the case in the science of perspective. When the sun's rays pass through concave or convex lenses or prisms, which narrow, scatter, or analyze the light beams. Thus, drawings remain projections of objects and not reflections.
It is necessary to mention the difference between the Arab spiritual perspective and the Indian perspective. They are similar in terms of the observer's eye instability in the scene. However, in the spiritual perspective, the eye remains unrestricted in movement, while in the Indian perspective, it moves within the multiplicity of horizon lines or within the multiplicity of vanishing points on a single horizon line.
3.3 Shadows in Arab Art
Shadows may exist in Arab art, but if they do, they do not adhere to the unity of the light source like shadows in Western painting. Instead, the light source is variable, it is the "Divine Light" and not sunlight. At least, it is subject to the painter's will, as is the case with shadows in Indian art.
While linear perspective seeks to highlight the third dimension or depth in a scientific and mathematical manner, the spiritual perspective has not abandoned this dimension. Instead, it has embarked on a different path. The eye does not look at objects with a fixed gaze but moves from the focal point of the image to its margins in a continuous spiral motion behind the line of sight.
In fact, this "spiral" third dimension aligns with the ascending spiritual concept of perspective in Islamic art. This spiritual dimension, which artists of the abstract school tried to simulate by drawing a painting devoid of forms, but rather expressing the essence and purity of art through the abstraction of the apparent. Alexander Eliot states, "A true abstract painting must be pure and complete, not I in it, emanating from the quiet soul toward the outer world. Has that drawing been achieved so far? If not, what a great victory still awaits." [23]
3.4 Spiral Perspective
Papa Dobolo discovered in Persian miniatures (Figure 13) that there is a spiral-shaped line formed by the figures composing the subject. He conducted this experiment on several miniatures and only a few deviated from his hypothesis. He later became convinced that the Persian artist intended for the art of Arab representation to compensate for the linear perspective that the Western art was based on. The spiral perspective at least suggests the penetration of the third dimension.
He also pointed out that the spiral is a symbol of the transition from the external world (the higher realm) to the earth where humans exist as a point on this earth. This viewpoint may be inherited from the Greeks and especially from Platonism. According to Papa Dobolo, this opinion is based on the belief in the presence of the soul and God, which Muslims, especially Sufis, believe in. This spiral movement appears to emanate from Allah Almighty, passing through the prophetic circle, and then through the counter-circle to reach the Sufi soul.
This is evident in the circumambulation around the Kaaba, the whirling of the dervishes, and the dance of life, which has been known since the Sumerian era and reached Muslims.
3.5 Perspective in Impressionist Art
This type of art emerged through post-Impressionist artists around 1880-1890. From the time of Cézanne to the analytical art of cubism, the path remained straight, leading to abstraction, especially since Cézanne adhered to the overall line of classical composition and perspective.”[24]. However, it was tinged with a sense, although Gauguin and some artists of the late 19th century also participated in the trends of this movement.
The classical artists viewed nature with an idealistic perspective and depicted it as an organized theater, based on the principles of perspective and the proportional relationship between sizes and distances. They adhered to this encounter between an eternal and unchanging nature and objectivity, where the scene is distributed around a vertical axis on the horizon line.
"However, when attempting to solve some artistic problems by revisiting the same mechanisms, the outcome often does not yield fruitful results. Instead, it leads to further complications. The repercussions of these problems result in the transfer of artistic experiences to different countries or schools, bringing with them new and contemporary visions and the construction of modern artistic structures on the ruins of the old. Some artists return to old schools and theories and establish modern ideas based on them." [25]. Similarly, the artists of the abstract school did the same by breaking the principles of classicism and returning to ancient arts and Islamic art to establish a contemporary artistic school.
This perspective relatively changed with the Impressionists and the artists of the late nineteenth century. The focal point and horizontal line dividing the painting into nearly equal halves shifted. The positions of the represented objects on the pictorial screen also changed. The represented individuals on this screen turned into parts of nature itself, thus losing the role assigned to them as fundamental objective and compositional elements in classical paintings (Figure 11). With the emergence of the Renaissance, a new visual space was formed, and all the elements of the painting were subjected to a single geometric structure.
What Impressionism achieved or paved the way for was a shift in perspective, abandoning landscapes, and liberating itself from these classical concepts. Artists like Van Gogh were among the first to use multiple vanishing points in a single painting, replacing linear geometric perspective with pure color values. Here, the concept of perspective, along with Impressionism, moved from a geometric understanding that considered measurements and proportional values to a more intuitive and spontaneous concept. This contributed to the introduction of new elements regarding the perceived range (Figure 12).
4. Conclusion
The art of drawing and painting did not arise from human imagination in isolation from the reality of life and the scientific composition of the universe. Instead, it was a natural product of human development, cultural advancement, and creativity, resulting from a scientific and mathematical interaction that led to the integration of art with science in a unified crucible, enriching both poles.
All civilizations, without exception, throughout their various differences and diversity, have produced things that have a special impact on the souls of their creators. The question that arises is: Why did all these civilizations, throughout their succession, produce things that are now considered timeless works with significant influence on human life?
Did they create them for utilitarian purposes and for attempts to showcase power and defy death through immortality? Or did the nature of humans lead them to discover the delicate balance between needs and achievements, which led to the creation of works based on science, knowledge, art, and creativity? This is evident in the dimensions of painting and the science of perspective, which transitioned from the simplest creative process, abstract colors, to precision in depicting three-dimensional dimensions or delving into the essence and artistic subtleties of things, as seen in Islamic art. All of this did not happen by mere chance, but through complete knowledge of the sciences and dimensions of artistic work and the ability to express oneself.
Thus, applied art absorbed a significant part of the artist's innovative energy and presented to the masses beautiful forms that fulfilled their function perfectly.
Although the artist benefits from their era and often serves as a mouthpiece for it, we find that they are often ahead of their time. They always create what is new and different. Many great artworks were initially rejected by the recipient and did not receive appreciation and admiration until advanced stages of their artistic life. Thus, art becomes a focal point for self-exploration and expression, as well as a path to knowledge.
We only begin to appreciate the importance of art in human history when we clearly see art as a path to knowledge, equal to other ways through which humans understand their surroundings, but with its own unique qualities.
Nietzsche said, "Our love for beauty is the will to create... and the value of art is that it is the greatest driving force of life." This principle was followed by Muslim artists in illuminated manuscripts and Impressionist artists in activating the realm of emotions in their artistic work, to highlight the value of life in its deep sense, rather than the superficial aspect.
References:
[1]SOLSO, Robert,Cognition and the Visual Arts, Braford Book the MIT press, London, 1996, p.8
[2]Quran, Yunis, Verse 5
[3]Quran, Al-Furkan, verse 45
[4]D’AMELIO Josef, Perspsctive Drawing Handbook,Tudor Publishing Company, New york 1964, p. 13
[5]STOREY G.A, The Theory and Practice of Perspective, Oxford at the clarendon press, London 1910, p. 1
[6]Al-Alfi, Abu Saleh, A Summary of General Art History, Nahda Misr Publishing and Printing House – Cairo, p. 100
[7]Awan, Schools and Movements of the Renaissance Era, Issue 189, May 26, 2008, p. 19
[8]PANOFSKY, Erwin, Perspective as Symbolic Form, translated by Christophher.S.Wood, Zoon Book, New York, 1997, p. 27
[9]HENG SER GUAN Kevin,Perspective in Mathematics and Arts, National University of Singapore, Singapoure 2002, p.3
[10]BAHNASI, Afif, Aesthetic of Arabic Art, Al-Ilm Al-Ma'rifa Publishing and Printing, Cairo, 1979, p. 35.
[11] AL-ALFI, Abu Saleh, A Summary of General Art History, Nahda Misr Publishing and Printing House, Cairo, p. 100
[12]HENG SER GUAN Kevin, op.cit. p. 3
[13]PANOFSKY Erwin, Op.Cit, p. 28
[14]SOLSO Robert,Op.Cit, p. 27
[15]FAYYAD, Layla. Pioneers of Arab and Foreign Painting, Dar Al-Qutub Al-Ilmiyyah, Beirut, First Edition, 1992 , p. 147.
[16]HENG SER GUAN Kevin, Op. Cit. p. 5
[17]Fayyad, Layla. Op. Cit. p. 409
[18]SAMHAT, Mohammed Ali, The Dialectical Relationship between Mathematics and Visual Arts, First Edition, Beirut, p. 167
[19]FAYYAD, Layla. Op. Cit. p. 194
[20]Ibid, p. p. 291-292
[21] Bahnasi, Afif, Op. Cit., p. 19
[22]SAMHAT, Mohammed Ali, Op. Cit., p. 259
[23] Ibid.
[24]FLANAGAN, George, How to Understand Modern Art, Translated by Kamal El Mallakh, Dar Al-Maaref, Egypt, 1962, P. 282
[25]PANOFSKY Erwin, Op.Cit, p. 47
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Cite as: SHARARA, H., (2021), The Mutation of Perspective in Modernism: Light and Shadow as a Case Study, Research LABS, Volume 1, Issue 2, (2021), No. 1, 10-30
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